T  C 

533 


UC-NRLF 


GIFT  OF 


GIFT 

v; 


.—     ~~~          *^H^^^_^ 

GREAT  AMMICAN 

EVEES 


a i     V  ' ft  *  .-frr? 


FROM       SHASTA       TO        THE       SEA 


DC 


GREAT  AMERICAN 

LEVEES 


COMPARATIVE 

REPORT  o/*  FLOOD 

PROTECTION  ^-rhx 

ffie  MISSISSIPPI  ancf 

SACRAMENTO  VALLEYS 

MADE   /or  Me 

WEST  SACRAMENTO 

COMPANY 


gy 
^AVILAND  DOZIER  Q  TIBBETTS 


6y 

WEST  SACRAMENTO   COMPANY 

SACRAMENTO 


This  book  is  No.^ 


of  a  Limited  Edition  Published  February  First 

Nineteen  Hundred  and  Thirteen  by  the 

West  Sacramento  Company 


Presented 


Copyright,  1913 

by  West  Sacramento 

Company 


FOREWORD 


RECLAMATION,  as  it  affects  the  great  Mississippi  and  Sacramento  Valleys  of 
America,  is  a  work  involving  many  failures  and  with  but  few  instances 
of  complete  success.   It  is  a  gigantic  task  that  involves  conservative  engineering, 
the  employment  of  the  highest  type  of  labor  and  the  most  modern,  mechanical 
methods. 

In  the  Sacramento  Valley  the  reclaimed  lands  are  unusually  fertile,  and  of 
great  value  for  agricultural  purposes ;  while  the  climatic  conditions  are  of  such 
an  ideal  nature  that  intensive  cultivation  is  followed  with  the  most  surprising 
success. 

Because  of  the  uncertain  and  hazardous  protection  from  flood  waters  in  the 
past,  these  lands  have  not  been  available  for  settlement. 

The  West  Sacramento  Company  entered  the  field  of  reclamation  and  pro- 
gressive agricultural  development  of  reclaimed  lands  with  a  deep  appreciation 
of  the  difficulties  involved.  The  responsibility  of  protecting  its  future  settlers  in 
the  most  complete  manner  from  the  flood  waters  of  the  affected  districts  was 
thoroughly  understood  and  accepted  by  this  Company. 

To  positively  and  satisfactorily  accomplish  the  greatest  success  in  work  of 
this  character,  levees  of  the  most  thorough  construction  must  be  built.  They 
must  be  of  sufficient  height  and  cross  section  and  be  protected  from  wave  wash, 
seepage  and  current  scour,  in  a  manner  consistent  with  the  best  practice ;  also 
drainage  systems  of  adequate  capacity  must  be  installed. 

All  these  features  are  engineering  problems  which  the  pioneer,  with  his  lim- 
ited data  concerning  the  magnitude  of  flood  conditions,  could  not  successfully 
solve.  This  Company,  from  the  time  of  entering  the  field  and  several  years 
prior  to  any  construction  work,  employed  the  best  engineering  and  construction 
talent  available.  It  never  at  any  time  allowed  the  question  of  expense  to  restrict 
or  interfere  with  the  design  and  construction  of  the  finest  and  largest  levee 
systems  in  the  West. 

In  the  Sacramento  Valley  great  floods  occur  at  long  intervals,  but  they  come 
so  suddenly  and  with  such  little  warning,  that  there  is  then  no  time  or  oppor- 
tunity for  studying  methods  which  will  successfully  combat  them. 

Since  California  is  a  new  country  and  examples  of  successful  levee  construc- 
tion are  of  comparatively  recent  origin,  it  was  thought  by  those  directing  the 
West  Sacramento  Company  that  it  would  be  possible  to  learn  much  from  older 
districts  facing  the  same  problems. 

Therefore,  in  the  Spring  of  1912,  when  the  Mississippi  Valley,  which  contains 
the  most  extensive  levee  systems  in  the  world,  was  visited  by  a  flood  of  unpre- 
cedented magnitude,  and  it  became  evident  that  levee  failures  were  imminent 

5 


in  that  section,  the  engineers  of  this  Company  were  instructed  to  proceed  at 
once  to  New  Orleans,  La. 

Although  this  trip  had  been  planned  for  some  time,  it  was  hastened  on  April 
6th  by  news  advising  that  the  great  St.  Francis  Levee,  opposite  Memphis,  Tenn., 
had  failed! 

Messrs.  P.  A.  Haviland  and  F.  H.  Tibbetts,  the  Company's  experts,  started 
immediately  from  San  Francisco  to  the  scene  of  danger.  Beginning  at  the  mouth 
of  the  Mississippi  they  traveled  up  the  course  of  this  river  to  its  junction  with 
the  Ohio  at  Cairo,  III.  They  made  a  first-hand  study  of  every  method  pertaining 
to  levee  construction,  levee  protection,  emergency  work  and  levee  failures  along 
the  entire  route. 

The  results  gained  from  this  investigation  are  important.  They  are  of  public 
interest  and  should  prove  of  direct  value  in  the  development  of  thorough  and 
state-wide  reclamation  in  California. 

With  the  hope  that  the  very  complete  investigations  and  reports  of  its 
engineers  may  be  of  service  to  every  reclamation  interest,  "Great  American 
Levees"  is  published  and  presented  to  you  with  the  compliments  of  the  West 
Sacramento  Company. 


General  Manager. 


TABLE  of  CONTENTS 

Page 

Levee  Construction  and  Emergency  Work 9 

Methods  of  Levee  Construction 9 

Levee  Failures 13 

Foundation  Failures      -         -         -         -         -         -         -         -         -14 

Sloughing  of  Rear  Slope        -         -         -         -         -         -         -         -16 

Overtopping  ----......     18 

Wave  Wash  21 

General  Comment  on  Mississippi  River  Flood  Control      -        -        -22 

Reclamation  Work  Accomplished  in  California        -        -        .        -25 
Principal  Projects  at  Present  Under  Way  in  California  -         -         -27 

Future  of  Reclamation  Work  in  the  Sacramento  Valley  -        .        -28 


LIST  of  ACCOMPANYING  PLATES 

Pag. 

Map  Showing  Levee  System  of  Mississippi  River       •         •         •         -         -29 

Standard  Levee  Cross  Sections  Used  in  Mississippi  and  Sacramento  River 

Valleys 30 

Showing  Method  of  Protection  from  Sloughing 31 

Methods  Used  to  Prevent  Overtopping  of  Levees         -         -         -         -         -32 
Methods  of  Protecting  Levees  Against  Wave  Wash 33 


H«t»fci»6iTY 


CALIfORHl*. 


REPORT-  ON  -MISSISSIPPI  -RIVER 
FLOOD  -  CONDITIONS  •  OF  -1912 

Levee  Construction  and  Emergency  Work 

THE  Mississippi  River  has  a  drainage  area  over  forty  times  as  great  as 
the  Sacramento,  but  has  a  measured  flood  discharge  only  four  times 
as  great.  The  flood  of  1912  was  the  result  of  an  unprecedented  com- 
bination of  moderately  high  stages  in  all  of  the  large  tributaries,  the  upper 
Mississippi,  the  Missouri,  the  Ohio  and  the  Red  Rivers,  caused  by  a  series  of 
unusual  storms  passing  across  the  lower  Missouri  and  Mississippi  watersheds, 
and  practically  the  whole  of  the  Ohio  watershed.  It  is  significant  that  none  of 
these  tributaries  reached  anywhere  near  record  stages.  For  example,  the  maxi- 
mum stage  in  Ohio,  at  Cincinnati,  in  1912  was  nearly  18  feet  lower  than  the 
extreme  high-water  mark,  and  in  the  Mississippi,  at  St.  Louis,  was  nearly  7  feet 
lower  than  extreme  high-water  mark.  If,  as  may  occur  at  any  time,  all  these 
large  tributaries  are  at  extreme  flood  stages  simultaneously,  then  the  Mississippi 
Valley  will  be  visited  by  a  far  greater  and  more  disastrous  flood  than  that  of  1912. 
From  the  mouth  of  the  Ohio  River  at  Cairo,  to  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  a  distance 
of  nearly  2,000  miles,  record  stages  were  exceeded  in  1912  by  from  1  to  5  feet, 
and  would  have  been  exceeded  an  indeterminate  amount  in  excess  of  this,  had 
not  the  levees  generally  failed.  Had  there  been  no  failures,  the  flood  would 
have  crested  at  Cairo,  about  April  10th.  The  important  levee  failures  occurred 
between  March  30th  and  May  15th,  the  most  serious  being  concentrated  in  the 
week  between  April  6th  and  12th  inclusive. 

Methods  of  Levee  Construction 

The  levee  system  along  the  lower  Mississippi  River,  that  is  from  the  mouth 
of  the  Ohio  down,  is  one  of  the  most  extensive  in  the  world,  comprising  about 
2,000  miles  of  levees  and  protecting  some  25,000  square  miles,  or  16,000,000 
acres  of  land. 

The  location  of  the  principal  levee  systems  is  indicated  on  the  accompanying 
map  (Plate  1)  taken  from  an  article  by  Mr.  A.  L.  Dabney,  Consulting  Engineer 
of  Memphis,  Tenn.,  published  in  the  Engineering  News  of  June  13, 1912. 

Almost  uniform  climatic,  topographical  and  geological  conditions  have  made 
it  possible  for  the  engineers  of  the  Mississippi  River  Commission  to  adopt  a 
standard  levee  cross  section  from  which  there  need  be  but  little  variation.  This 


•-•-.:; 

v  .v!i-n.i 

>i-;i:-^-;;    -    *   "^ 


.f  -tr  ^_ 

^^tWO.W.8..,  •  .7 


ii 


FIGURE  1  —  Standard  government  levee 

at  Lake  St.  John,  La.    Levee  22  feet  high  with 

banquette  on  rear. 

cross  section  has  been  developed  by  long  experience  and  is  expected  to  with- 
stand the  water  to  within  3  feet  of  the  crown,  for  long  periods  without  excessive 
saturation  or  change  of  forms,  and  to  give  unqualified  protection  under  any 
normal  conditions  of  foundation  and  materials  of  construction.  It  is  not  believed 
that  in  the  1912  flood  there  were  any  important  failures  in  levees  of  the  standard 
cross  section,  unless  the  water  got  higher  than  3  feet  below  the  crown,  except 
through  defective  foundations.  The  standard  cross  section  is  shown  on  Section 
1,  Plate  2.  It  has  an  8-foot  top  width,  with  1  on  3  side  slopes  to  the  ground 
level  on  the  water  side,  and  on  the  land  side,  down  to  a  point  8  feet  from  the 
top,  at  which  point  a  banquette  is  added  with  a  1  on  10  slope  for  20  feet,  after 
which  the  slope  is  1  on  4  to  the  ground  level.  (See  Figs.  1  and  2.) 

The  borrow  pits,  wherever  possible,  are  made  on  the  water  side  with  a 
berm  of  at  least  40  feet,  and  at  the  inner  edge  are  only  3  feet  deep  with  a  1  on 
2  side  slope.  They  can  be  deepened  toward  the  river,  however,  at  the  rate  of 
2  feet  per  hundred.  Where  it  is  necessary  to  place  the  borrow  pits  on  the  land 
~side  a  berm  is  left  of  at  least  100  feet.  The  base  of  the  levee  is  always  thor- 
oughly cleared  of  trees,  brush,  grass  or  other  foreign  material  and  plowed,  and 
sometimes  the  top  surface,  containing  roots,  removed.  A  muck  ditch  or  explora- 
tion trench  is  dug  along  the  base  of  the  levee  5  feet  in  front  of  the  center  line, 
and  back  filled  with  strong,  well-tamped  material,  in  order  that  there  may  be 

10 


DC 


FIGURE  2  —  Standard  government  levee. 

Lower  Tensas  District  at  Alsatia  Break.   Spectators 

standing  on  banquette  at  rear. 


88 


no  continuous  holes  or  lines  of  weakness  in  the  foundation.  The  borrow  pits 
are  interrupted  by  traverses  with  a  minimum  top  width  of  10  feet  and  side 
slopes  of  1  on  2.  The  traverses  are  left  normal  to  the  levee,  at  intervals  of  not 
more  than  500  feet,  to  prevent  the  flow  of  a  current  along  the  base  of  the  levee. 
(See  Fig.  3.) 

Nearly  all  construction  work  has  been  accomplished  with  teams  and 
scrapers,  or  by  hand  work  with  shovels  and  wheelbarrows,  using  cheap  negro 
labor.  In  the  last  few  years,  however,  use  is  beginning  to  be  made  of  drag-line 
excavators,  steam  shovels,  and  other  dredging  and  excavating  machinery. 

The  banquette,  by  adding  dead  weight  to  the  rear  of  the  levee,  tends  to 
counteract  the  otherwise  unbalanced  water  pressure  on  the  front,  and  thus  pre- 
vent the  upheaving  of  the  foundation  when  the  levee  becomes  saturated  through 
long  exposure.  A  similar  effect,  that  of  adding  dead  weight  to  the  rear  of  the 
levee,  is  sometimes  attained  by  the  construction  of  secondary  levees  located 
some  distance  to  the  rear  of  the  main  levee,  allowing  the  space  between  to  fill 
with  water,  thus  creating  a  counter-head.  This  principle  is  strongly  advocated  by 
Major  Dabney,  Engineer  of  the  upper  Yazoo  Levee  District,  who  also  employs  a 
somewhat  heavier  cross  section  with  flatter  slopes  in  the  rear,  as  shown  by  Sec- 
tion 2,  Plate  2.  It  is  significant  that  this  district  is  one  of  the  two  large  districts 

11 


DC 


FIGURE  3  —  Levee  at  Vidalia,  La. 

Eddy  formed  at  location  of  traverse  on  berm.   Sack  revetment 
to  prevent  undermining. 


00 


(the  second  being  the  Pontchartrain  District  ahove  New  Orleans)  in  which 
there  were  no  disastrous  breaks  in  1912. 

For  comparative  purposes,  there  are  also  shown  on  Plate  2  the  standard 
levee  section  proposed  by  the  Dabney  Commission  and  by  the  California 
Debris  Commission  for  the  main  levee  systems  in  the  Sacramento  Valley,  as 
well  as  the  sections  of  several  well-known  California  Districts.  It  will  be  no- 
ticed that  none  of  the  California  levees  are  provided  with  a  banquette.  It 
is  probable  that  this  is  chiefly  due  to  the  fact  that  most  of  the  large  Cali- 
fornia levees  are  constructed  with  floating  clam  shell  dredges  which  on 
account  of  the  limitations  of  reach  are  unable  to  build  banquettes  on  the 
rear.  In  general  the  rear  slopes  of  such  levees,  if  economically  built,  represent 
the  slope  at  which  the  material  dredged  will  stand,  varying  from  1  on  1 1  in  sand 
to  1  on  4  in  wet  clay  or  adobe.  The  banquette  is  not  needed  in  California  as 
it  is  along  the  Mississippi  River,  because  the  floods  are  of  much  shorter  dura- 
tion and  the  levee  section  seldom  has  time  to  get  completely  saturated.  The 
chief  purpose  of  the  banquette  is  to  add  dead  weight  to  the  rear  of  the  levee  in 
order  to  balance  the  hydrostatic  head  on  the  front,  an  object  which  becomes 
necessary  only  when  the  levee  cross  section  approaches  saturation. 

The  muck  ditch  or  exploration  trench  should  be  in  more  general  use  in 
California,  especially  in  levees  built  in  the  tules.  Where  an  unbroken  top  layer 

12 


FIGURE  4  —  Edge  of  great  crevasse  at  Alsatia,  La.   One  of  the  largest  and 

most  disastrous  breaks  in  the  history  of  the  Mississippi  River.    Break  about  5000  feet 

long ;  water  running  about  15  feet  deep.    Flooded 

the  entire  Tensas  Valley. 


88 


of  tules  is  left  it  makes  a  porous  strata  at  the  base  of  the  levee  which  increases 
seepage  underneath,  tending  to  saturate  the  levee,  to  increase  the  danger  of 
sloughing,  and  to  increase  the  cost  of  pumping  seepage  water.  Where  levees 
are  constructed  of  sand,  on  sand  or  sandy  silt  foundations,  as  frequently  found 
along  the  Sacramento  River,  then  all  that  may  be  necessary  is  a  thorough  clean- 
ing by  hand,  and  possible  plowing  of  the  surface  to  prevent  a  line  of  weakness 
at  the  base  of  the  levee. 

Levee  Failures 

Along  the  2,000  miles  of  levee  of  the  lower  Mississippi  River  there  were 
22  breaks  aggregating  in  length  about  20  miles.  This  is  counting  as  two  breaks 
the  failure  of  the  upper  St.  Francis  levee  which  is  intermittent  and  unfinished. 
Flood  waters  from  these  breaks  flooded  over  5,000,000  acres  or  about  ^  of  the 
total  area  which  they  were  designed  to  protect.  The  only  important  break  on 
the  east  side  of  the  Mississippi  River  occurred  near  the  mouth  of  the  White 
River,  and  flooded  over  800,000  acres,  or  about  •!  of  the  total  area  under  levees 
in  Mississippi. 

A  great  percentage  of  the  large  breaks  did  not  occur  until  the  levees  were 
actually  overtopped,  and  in  many  cases  the  levees  were  held  by  temporary 

13 


DC 


FIGURE  5  —  Rear  edge  at  south  end  of  big  crevasse  at  Alsatia  or  Salem,  La., 
about  50  miles  above  Vicksburg,  Tenn.    Break  occurred  at  junction  of  old  and  new  levee. 
Levee  was  22  feet  high  and  holding  17  feet  of  water.    Break  occurred  by  a  sand- 
boil  suddenly  appearing  at  the  rear  toe.   The  levee  was  considered  safe. 
A  stream  of  water  2  feet  in  diameter  was  reported  to  be 
running  through  the  sand-boil,  just  prior  to 
the  collapse  of  the  levee. 

emergency  methods,  until  water  was  as  much  as  2  to  3  feet  above  the  natural 
crown.  The  levee  failures  in  general  were  from  four  different  causes,  as  follows : 

1.  From  defective  foundations,  causing  sand-boils  or  blow-outs. 

2.  From  insufficient  cross  sections,  permitting  saturation  and  sloughing  of 
the  land  side  face. 

3.  From  overtopping. 

4.  From  wind  action  causing  waves  to  undermine  and  destroy  portions  of 
the  levee. 

Foundation  Failures 

Most  of  the  levees  have  been  brought  up  to  their  present  grades  by  suc- 
cessive enlargements.  Frequently  the  earlier  construction  work  was  completed 
with  little  or  no  attention  to  properly  clearing  the  ground  to  be  occupied  by 
the  base  of  the  levee.  This  has  resulted  in  a  partial  line  of  weakness  at  the 
foundation,  allowing  excessive  seepage.  In  other  places  the  levee  even  though 
carefully  constructed  may  be  underlaid  with  pockets  or  strata  of  porous  material 
or  may  have  the  base  weakened  by  holes  from  burroughing  animals.  In  any  of 
these  cases  when  the  levee  is  long  exposed  to  a  considerable  head  of  water, 

14 


FIGURE  6  —  Levee  at  Vidalia,  La.,  opposite  Natchez,  Miss.    Saturated 

rear  slope  is  beginning  to  slough  off.    Water  within  1  foot  of  crown  of  levee  which 

has  been  raised  3  feet  by  earth  topping.    Sloughing  in  rear  of 

levee  near  center  of  view.    Contractor's  emergency 

camp  in  background. 

seepage  finds  its  way  through  in  increasing  quantities  and  may  make  its  appear- 
ance in  concentrated  form  on  the  banquette,  at  the  rear  toe  of  the  levee,  or  a 
considerable  distance  beyond  the  rear  toe  of  the  levee.  When  the  seepage  be- 
comes concentrated,  and  especially  if  it  is  muddy,  indicating  that  it  is  washing 
material  from  the  levee  section,  it  is  a  serious  indication  of  approaching  failure. 
"Sand-boils"  or  "blow-outs"  are  thus  caused.  If  the  seepage  is  allowed  to  con- 
tinue until  a  well-defined  stream  comes  through  the  rear  of  the  levee,  a  hole  is 
soon  washed  completely  through,  and  the  levee  caves  in  with  disastrous  results. 
Where  the  levees  are  comparatively  low  and  carefully  patrolled,  this  is  some- 
times checked  by  dumping  in  material,  preferably  clay,  on  the  outer  slope  which 
may  be  drawn  in  to  the  weakened  portions,  thus  checking  the  seepage.  In  general, 
however,  the  best  method  of  treatment  is  to  surround  spots  where  seepage  con- 
centrates in  an  alarming  fashion,  with  a  wall  of  earth,  or  to  encircle  or  loop  them 
with  sacks  of  earth.  The  retaining  work  must  be  carried  up  to  a  sufficient  height 
to  overcome  the  head  of  water  on  the  outside.  When  a  leak  of  this  sort  appears 
at  the  base  of  the  levee  or  on  the  rear  slope,  accompanied  by  the  flowing  or  boiling 
up  of  sand,  no  time  should  be  lost  in  commencing  emergency  work.  (See  Fig.  5.) 
Where,  due  to  defective  foundations,  sand-boils  are  numerous,  the  most 
effective  method  of  treatment  is  to  enlarge  the  banquette,  or  to  build  sub-levees. 

15 


FIGURE  7  —  Brush  and  sack  revetment,  Blytheville,  Ark.    Here  the 

sack  topping  is  fully  2  feet  above  the  levee.   The  slope  has  become  so  saturated  that 

the  heavy  brush  and  sack  revetment  was  applied  to  keep 

it  from  sloughing  away.    (By  courtesy 

of  Mr.  A.  L.  Dabney.) 

However,  this  is  seldom  practical  in  an  emergency,  on  account  of  the  limited 
time  available.  Where  there  is  a  more  impervious  surface  and  the  tendency  at 
an  incipient  hlow-out  is  to  raise  the  surface  with  comparatively  little  seepage,  a 
remedy  may  sometimes  be  found  in  the  application  of  dead  weight  to  balance 
the  hydrostatic  head  communicated  through  the  weakened  strata  under  the  base 
of  the  levee.  This  can  be  done  "by  covering  the  weakened  spot  with  a  porous 
material,  such  as  straw  or  brush,  and  weighting  down  with  sacks  of  earth.  This 
may  hold  down  the  threatened  portion  and  at  the  same  time  allow  the  passage 
of  seepage  water,  but  with  such  reduced  velocity  that  further  erosion  is  checked. 

Sloughing  of  Rear  Slope 

This  is  a  common  method  of  failure  in  levees  of  deficient  cross  section  and 
drainage,  after  long  periods  of  exposure.  It  is  particularly  pronounced  in  levees 
which  have  been  enlarged  by  adding  material  on  the  rear  slopes.  Where  such 
enlargements  are  made,  great  care  should  be  used  to  secure  a  perfect  bond  be- 
tween the  old  and  the  new  work.  If  the  new  material  is  more  impervious  or  is 
more  thoroughly  tamped  or  packed  than  the  old  levee,  then  the  hydrostatic 
pressure  accumulates  against  the  new  layers  so  that  sloughing  is  apt  to  occur 
along  the  junction  between  the  old  and  new  work.  In  general,  when  the  line  of 

16 


FIGURE  8  —  Sack  revetment  and 

sack  topping  near  Memphis,  Tenn.    ( By  courtesy 

of  Mr.  A.  L.  Dabney.) 

complete  saturation  passes  through  the  levee  so  that  seepage  appears  in  any 
considerable  amounts  on  the  rear  face,  sloughing  is  apt  to  occur.  (See  Fig.  6.) 

It  is  believed  that  more  thorough  drainage  of  the  levees  would  check  this 
wide-spread  tendency  along  the  Mississippi  River.  There  are  many  cases  in 
which  a  line  of  tile  is  placed  underneath  the  rear  toe  and  many  others  in  which 
a  small  hand  ditch  is  located  at  or  near  the  rear  toe.  Both  of  these  methods  are 
designed  to  collect  seepage  water  and  lead  it  away  from  the  levees  to  the  adja- 
cent fields.  When  properly  constructed,  drainage  of  this  sort  is  very  efficient  in 
preventing  the  saturation  of  the  rear  slope.  It  may  even  be  used  with  highly 
beneficial  results  as  emergency  work,  when  it  is  evident  that  the  rear  slope  is 
becoming  actually  saturated.  When  sloughing  occurs,  the  most  common  emer- 
gency work  is  to  add  dead  weight  near  the  base  of  the  rear  slope,  usually  by  first 
covering  the  saturated  surface  with  a  coarse  layer  of  brush  or  straw  and  then 
weighting  with  sacks  of  earth,  sand,  or  other  convenient  material.  (See  Plate 
3  and  Figs.  7  and  8.) 

Where  brush  or  small  poles  are  used,  they  should  be  laid  parallel  to  the 
slope  in  order  to  permit  the  passage  of  seepage  water  without  further  erosion. 
This  work  is  always  exceedingly  difficult,  because  the  saturation  of  the  levee  and 
frequently  of  the  adjacent  land  prevents  the  use  of  teams  and  even  makes  it 
unsafe  to  borrow  earth  in  the  immediate  vicinity.  In  a  long  continued  flood, 

17 


DC 


FIGURE  9  — •  Earth  topping  on  levees  at  Vidalia,  above 

Natchez,  Miss.;  levee  raised  2  feet  with  fresh  earth  placed  with  wheelharrows. 

Wash-boards  to  protect  from  wave  action. 

Crown  width  2  feet. 

where  the  levees  tend  to  become  saturated  with  resultant  sloughing,  the  danger 
may  be  greatly  increased  by  cloudy  weather  and  constant  rains,  which  prevent 
the  rear  slopes  from  drying  out. 

Overtopping 

When  an  earth  levee  is  actually  overtopped,  its  failure  is  certain  within  a 
few  hours.  When  it  becomes  evident  that  there  is  danger  from  this  source,  there 
are  a  number  of  methods  of  emergency  work  used  for  raising  or  "topping"  the 
levees.  The  principal  methods  are  shown  on  Plate  4.  The  levees  along  the 
Mississippi  River  usually  have  a  top  width  not  exceeding  8  feet  which  does  not 
permit  a  raise  exceeding  about  3  feet  as  a  maximum.  When  there  is  sufficient 
time,  and  the  rear  slope  and  adjacent  ground  is  not  too  greatly  weakened  by 
saturation,  the  best  method  is  to  top  the  levees  with  earth  taken  from  borrow 
pits  beyond  the  inner  toe  of  the  levees.  This  work  can  be  most  cheaply  done 
with  teams  and  scrapers.  In  many  cases,  however,  the  saturation  of  the  rear 
slope  makes  it  dangerous  to  work  with  teams,  and  hence  the  topping  has  to  be 
done  by  hand,  or  with  wheelbarrows.  In  other  cases  observed,  the  land  to  the 
rear  was  so  saturated  that  material  had  to  be  borrowed  from  the  banquette  or 
rear  slopes.  Even  where  the  top  width  was  as  narrow  as  8  feet,  the  topping  was 

18 


FIGURE  10 — Levees  of  lower  Yazoo  District  near 

Brunswick,  Miss.,  topped  with  sacking,  partially  backed  with  earth  (water 

has  fallen  as  a  result  of  the 

Alsatia  break ). 

extended  to  a  height  of  3  feet  as  shown  on  Section  1,  Plate  4,  giving  the  fresh 
material  1  on  1^  side  slopes,  and  a  2-foot  crown  width.  (See  Fig.  9.) 

A  number  of  variations  of  this  method  are  shown  on  Plate  4,  in  some  of 
which  sacks  of  earth  are  employed,  permitting  the  use  of  a  smaller  amount  of 
material  and  more  rapid  raising  of  the  levees.  The  sacks  placed  on  the  water 
side  are  also  less  susceptible  of  injury  from  wave  wash  than  the  surface  of  the 
new  earth  topping.  (See  Fig.  10.) 

Wash-boarding  was  extensively  used  also,  as  shown  in  Section  5,  backed 
with  a  small  section  of  earth  fill.  The  wash-boards  were  usually  cheap  1-inch 
lumber,  but  afforded  some  protection  against  wave  wash.  (See  Fig.  11.) 

Frequently  the  topping  has  to  be  done  with  material  borrowed  from  the 
old  levee  near  the  crown.  In  such  cases  it  is  plowed,  if  possible,  and  the  earth 
taken  from  the  rear  edge  of  the  top.  Loose  material  used  as  a  core  between 
tiers  of  sacks  should  be  thoroughly  tamped.  The  timber  bulkhead  backed  by 
earth  is  the  cheapest  method,  and  answers  satisfactorily  where  the  levee  does 
not  require  raising  more  than  a  foot  or  so.  Where  a  rise  of  2  feet  or  more  is 
anticipated,  however,  and  especially  where  it  is  impossible  to  work  teams  and 
scrapers,  dependence  must  be  placed  upon  the  more  expensive  sack  method, 
with  or  without  an  earth  core. 

19 


FIGURE  11  —  Levees  of  Fifth  Louisiana  District  above  Natchez,  topped 

with  wash-boards,  backed  with  earth.    1-inch  boards  nailed  to  2  x  4  stakes.    Barge  of 

Mississippi  River  Commission  in  background  placing  wash-boards 

from  berm.    Sack  revetment  in  foreground. 

One  advantage  of  the  use  of  sacks  is  that  they  can  be  filled  from  convenient 
points  and  transported,  frequently  by  barges,  to  the  site  of  the  work,  thus  obvi- 
ating the  necessity  of  further  weakening  the  original  cross  section  by  borrowing 
material  for  topping  at  the  immediate  vicinity  of  the  work. 

Any  of  these  temporary  methods  of  topping  levees  with  such  a  narrow 
width  are  not  apt  to  be  efficient  in  a  prolonged  flood.  That  they  can  hold,  how- 
ever, for  a  limited  time  is  well  shown  by  the  fact  that  the  topping  raised  the 
water  at  the  Reel  Foot,  lower  St.  Francis  and  White  River  levees  1  foot  or  more 
above  the  crests  before  the  levees  broke.  On  the  upper  St.  Francis  levees  the 
water  was  about  1  \  feet  above  when  the  breaks  began.  On  the  upper  Tensas 
District  in  Arkansas,  the  levees  were  actually  held  till  the  water  was  2  ^  feet 
above  the  top  and  until  the  temporary  work  itself  was  finally  overtopped.  ( See 
Figs.  12  and  13.) 

It  would  seem  that  under  conditions  obtaining  in  the  Sacramento  Valley, 
methods  of  topping  might  be  more  useful  than  along  the  Mississippi  because 
the  floods  are  of  much  shorter  duration,  and  the  levees  commonly  have  a  much 
greater  top  width.  Against  these  advantages,  however,  along  the  Sacramento 
River  is  a  swift  and  uncertain  rise,  giving  little  time  for  emergency  work ;  and 
along  the  back  levees  in  the  flood  basins  is  the  very  great  danger  from  wave  wash. 

20 


FIGURE  12  —  Sack  topping,  Blytheville,  Ark. 

Water  reaching  the  sack  topping.    ( By  courtesy  of 

Mr.  A.  L.  Dabney.) 


aa 


Wave   Wash 


The  tendency  for  failure  from  wave  wash  appears  in  general  to  be  much 
less  along  the  Mississippi  than  along  the  Sacramento  River.  The  Mississippi 
River  levees,  chiefly  because  of  the  shifting  channel  and  caving  banks,  are  gen- 
erally located  a  considerable  distance  back  from  the  river  bank,  and  as  the  berm 
is  covered  with  a  dense  growth  of  trees  and  underbrush,  there  is  little  exposure 
to  wave  wash.  The  river  is  so  wide  that  constant  erosion  from  steamer  wash 
experienced  along  the  Sacramento  River  is  not  evident  along  the  Mississippi 
River.  In  California  many  of  the  heaviest  and  most  costly  levees  are  back  levees 
located  in  the  flood  basins,  which  during  winter  storms  may  be  exposed  to  tre- 
mendous wave  action  for  many  hours.  The  Reel  Foot  levee,  near  Hickman, 
Kentucky,  appears  to  be  the  only  important  failure  along  the  Mississippi  River 
in  1912  from  wind  action.  This  levee  failed  with  the  water  1  foot  above  the 
natural  crown  from  waves  undermining  the  sack  topping.  There  were  many 
places,  however,  where  the  levees  were  located  close  to  the  river  bank  or  the 
berm  had  been  cleared,  in  which  emergency  work,  to  guard  against  wave  wash, 
had  been  placed.  The  two  methods  in  most  common  use  are  shown  in  Sections 
1  and  4  on  Plate  5.  The  sack  protection  is  considered  much  more  efficient, 
though  more  costly,  than  the  wash-boards.  (See  Fig.  14.) 

Vertical  wash-boards,  if  exposed  for  any  length  of  time,  will  be  undermined 

21 


DC 


FIGURE  13  —  Lower  St.  Francis  levee  10  miles  below 

Memphis,  Tenn.   Topped  with  double  tier  of  sacks.   This  levee  held  till 

topping  was  actually  overtopped. 

by  the  action  of  waves  breaking  at  the  vertical  face,  projecting  the  force  of  the 
water  downward  at  the  toe  of  the  protection  work.    (See  Fig.  9.) 

A  number  of  other  methods  which  have  been  used  in  California  are  also  shown 
on  Plate  5,  in  the  order  of  their  relative  efficiency.  Probably  the  commonest 
method  used  for  emergency  work  is  to  cover  the  slopes  with  a  layer  of  fibrous 
material,  such  as  tules,  brush,  straw,  or  any  other  convenient  material.  This  mat  is 
held  in  place  by  light  chicken  wire  mesh  staked  at  irregular  intervals  to  the  levee 
face  with  sharpened  sticks  having  projecting  nails  to  hold  the  wire  mesh  and 
fibrous  mat  close  to  the  surface  of  the  levee.  Willow  poles  with  projecting 
branches  can  also  be  conveniently  used  for  staking  down  the  mat.  In  any  work 
of  this  nature  an  efficient  patrolling  system  is  absolutely  essential,  as  any  portion 
of  the  levee  face  not  protected  may  cause  failure  in  a  short  time. 

General  Comment  on  Mississippi  River  Flood  Control 

The  situation  during  the  1912  flood  along  the  lower  Mississippi  seems  from 
the  superficial  view-point  of  the  writers  to  be  somewhat  discouraging.  In  any 
great  river  system  with  tributaries  coming  from  different  watersheds,  the  maxi- 
mum floods  occur  only  at  long  intervals,  and  only  by  combinations  of  high  water, 
in  all  the  principal  tributaries.  The  condition  of  extreme  high  water  occurring 
simultaneously  in  all  tributaries  has  never  been  reached  since  the  region  was 

22 


I   .. 


FIGURE  14  —  Levees  of  the  Fifth  Louisiana  District  at  sharp  bend 

above  Natchez.    Sack  revetment  to  protect  against  wave  wash  at  point  where 

levee  is  close  to  riverbank  and  completely  exposed,  due 

to  absence  of  timber  on  berm. 


09 


settled,  in  either  the  Mississippi  or  Sacramento  Valleys.  It  appears  that  in  the 
great  flood  of  1909  at  Sacramento,  the  American  River  was  discharging  not  over 
|  of  its  maximum.  As  previously  indicated,  in  the  1912  flood  in  the  Mississippi, 
none  of  the  tributaries  were  at  extreme  high-water  stages.  It  is  certain  that  if 
sufficient  time  were  allowed,  there  will  be  greater  floods  both  in  the  Mississippi 
and  Sacramento  Valleys  than  any  so  far  recorded. 

Engineers  familiar  with  Mississippi  River  conditions  estimate  that  had  all 
levees  been  finished  to  grade,  and  3  to  5  feet  higher  than  planned,  they  would 
have  been  adequate  to  pass  the  1912  flood.  These  estimates  in  the  main,  however, 
appear  to  emanate  from  Engineers  who  are  or  have  been  in  some  way  interested 
in  the  work  of  the  Mississippi  River  Commission,  and  who  feel  called  upon  to 
defend  the  levee  construction  methods  followed  in  the  past.  It  is,  of  course,  impos- 
sible for  visitors,  with  as  casual  a  knowledge  of  the  Mississippi  River  flood  problems 
as  the  writers,  to  make  any  suggestion  regarding  the  ultimate  method  of  treatment. 
To  any  one  who  saw  the  great  crevasses  along  the  Mississippi  this  spring,  it  seems 
incredible  that  the  total  amount  of  water  could  ever  be  confined  in  the  levees 
of  the  main  channel.  At  the  time  the  writer  saw  the  Alsatia  break,  which  was 
but  one  of  20  or  more  large  levee  breaks,  the  water  was  flowing  through  about 
12  feet  deep  and  5,000  feet  wide.  The  difference  of  head  at  the  upper  end  of 

23 


ac 


Dredge  Jupiter  completing  river  levee  of  Elkhorn  Reclamation 

District.    Finished  levee  40-foot  top  width ;  1  on  2  side  slopes ;  height  20  feet, 

7  feet  above  high  water.   Dredge  Jupiter  168-foot 

boom,  4J-yard  bucket. 

the  break,  measured  at  a  point  some  20  feet  back  from  the  end,  showed  the 
water  standing  about  2  feet  higher  on  the  outside  of  the  levee  than  on  the  inside. 
It  was,  of  course,  impossible  to  get  anywhere  near  the  center  of  the  break.  If  the 
estimated  velocity  through  the  break  were  as  low  as  7  feet  per  second,  there 
would  be  over  400,000  second  feet  escaping  from  this  one  point  alone.  Mr.  Kerr 
of  the  Engineer  office  at  Memphis  estimated  at  the  time  that  the  total  discharge 
passing  Memphis  was  about  2,000,000  second  feet.  If  20  per  cent  of  this  amount 
were  going  through  one  break  alone,  it  does  not  seem  reasonable  that  all  of  the 
water  going  out  through  the  entire  20  breaks  could  be  confined  in  the  levees, 
especially  as  there  were  only  3  feet  of  levee  above  water  at  the  time,  at  the  City 
of  New  Orleans.  Perhaps,  after  all,  the  Mississippi  Valley  in  order  to  secure 
permanent  protection  from  floods  will  be  compelled  to  resort  to  a  great  by-pass 
scheme  similar  to  that  proposed  for  California.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  this  principle 
is  already  in  operation  in  the  lower  Mississippi,  as  water  escaping  from  the 
Mississippi  River  on  the  west  side  below  the  mouth  of  the  Red  River  is  by- 
passed through  the  Atchafalya  River  into  Lake  Charles  and  the  Gulf,  and  does 
not  go  by  New  Orleans. 

No  levees  observed  in  the  Mississippi  Valley,  except  those  of  the  City  of 
New  Orleans,  were  so  large  or  so  substantially  constructed  as  some  which  the 

24 


Finished  river  levee  —  West  Sacramento  Company.    Levee  24  feet  high, 

80-foot  top  width, 7  feet  above  high  water;  side  slopes  1  on  2  and  1  on  1J.   Pile  jetty 

in  foreground  designed  for  river  contraction  purpose  to  improve 

navigation ;  also  effective  in  protecting 

lower  toe  of  levee. 

writers  have  seen  in  California.  Methods  of  construction  are  very  inferior  and 
the  unit  costs  of  the  levees  proportionately  higher.  The  great  floating  clam  shell 
dredges  in  common  use  in  California  would  probably  create  a  sensation  along 
the  Mississippi  River,  and  could  certainly  do  most  of  the  work  much  cheaper 
than  it  is  being  done  under  present  methods.  The  results  of  all  observations 
made  tend  to  restore  and  confirm  confidence  in  the  higher,  more  substantial 
and  more  economically  constructed  levees  in  California. 

Reclamation  Work  Accomplished  in  California 

Up  to  a  few  years  ago,  the  success  of  swamp  land  reclamation  work  in  Cali- 
fornia was  by  no  means  assured.  The  reclaimed  land  was  of  very  great  value 
for  agricultural  purposes,  but  its  usefulness  was  greatly  impaired  by  the  constant 
and  growing  uncertainty  and  danger  from  flood  waters.  The  usual  practice  had 
been  to  completely  enclose  in  levees,  districts  varying  in  size  from  a  few  acres 
to  50,000  acres.  The  levee  systems  had  grown  intermittently  and  irregularly  from 
small  hand  levees  to  large  dykes  10  to  15  feet  or  more  in  height.  The  pioneers 
had  a  very  inadequate  conception  of  the  magnitude  of  the  problems  involved. 
Little  use  had  been  made  of  engineering  skill  or  study,  and  the  machinery  in 

25 


DC 


Placing  reinforced  concrete  facing  on  Lisbon  back  levee. 

This  levee  will  form  the  north  levee  of  the  Netherlands.    Facing  is  of  reinforced  concrete 

4  J  inches  thick,  resting  on  sheet  piling  at  the  lower  toe  and  extending  5  feet 

above  the  high-water  mark.    Levee  section  23  feet  high ;  15-foot 

top  width  i  I  on  21  side  slopes ;  Dredge 

Lisbon  in  background. 

use  was  of  insufficient  capacity  to  properly  construct  the  necessary  levees.  The 
location,  design  and  construction  of  most  of  the  reclamation  work  were  costly  and 
inefficient. 

The  last  decade  has  put  an  entirely  different  aspect  upon  this  situation. 
Flood  control  problems  have  been  studied  thoroughly  and  scientifically  and  the 
best  engineering  talent  available  has  been  concentrated  on  the  large  reclamation 
districts.  Heavy  dredging  machinery  has  been  developed  further  in  some  lines 
than  anywhere  else  in  the  world.  The  great  clam  shell  dredges  now  in  use  in 
California  are  unsurpassed  in  capacity  or  length  of  reach.  The  levee  cross  sec- 
lions  have  been  gradually  enlarged  and  improved  and  construction  methods 
perfected,  until  it  is  doubtful  if  there  are  any  larger  or  better  levees  anywher 
As  compared  with  larger  river  systems,  like  the  Mississippi  for  example, 
maintenance  of  river  levees  is  much  easier  in  the  Sacramento  Valley,  because 
of  the  much  briefer  duration  of  the  floods,  which  are  hardly  long  enough  to 
permit  of  the  saturation  of  the  levee  sections.  On  the  other  hand,  the  back 
levees  located  in  the  flood  basins  in  many  cases  have  a  terrific  exposure  to  wave 
wash  during  the  winter  storms.  The  growth  of  willows  is  generally  encouraged 
on  back  levees,  and  climatic  and  other  conditions  are  so  favorable  that  where 

26 


DC 


.-.->.:. 


oo 


River  levee  of  Reclamation  District  No.  70  ( Alaraeda  Sugar  Company). 

Dredge  Neptune  in  background  with  section  of  finished  levee.   Top  width,  20  feet ; 

side  slopes  1  on  2J;  6  feet  above  high-water  mark.    Height 

about  16  feet.    Old  levee  in  foreground. 


there  is  a  proper  berm,  it  is  frequently  possible  to  get  a  dense  covering  in  a  short 
time.  In  some  cases,  however,  this  has  been  found  to  be  inadequate,  and  at  least 
one  district  (Lisbon)  has  faced  its  back  levees  with  solid  concrete,  while  others 
(West  Sacramento  Co.)  are  planning  the  same  construction. 

Most  of  the  levees  in  the  Sacramento  Valley  have  grown  in  an  irregular  and 
intermittent  fashion ;  many  of  them  have  been  quickly  destroyed  by  successive 
floods,  and  abandoned ;  but  meanwhile  new  projects  are  constantly  under  way, 
so  that  it  is  impossible  to  give  an  accurate  estimate  of  the  amount  of  land  re- 
claimed or  partially  reclaimed  at  any  given  time.  The  best  estimates  available 
at  the  present  time  indicate  that  the  area  of  reclaimed  land  wholly  in  the  flood 
basins  and  which  could  be  said  under  normal  conditions  to  be  submerged  with 
each  moderate  or  large  flood,  is  about  145,000  acres  north  of  Sacramento,  and 
about  110,000  acres  south  of  Sacramento,  making  a  total  of  245,000  acres,  or 
about  30  per  cent  of  the  total  of  800,000  acres.^ 

Principal  Projects  at  Present  Under  Way  in  California 

Reclamation  work  in  the  Sacramento  Valley  is  proceeding  at  present  at  a 
wholly  unprecedented  rate.  Actual  construction  work  is  being  actively  pushed 
on  tracts  aggregating  over  150,000  acres,  or  nearly  20  per  cent  of  the  total.  All 

27 


ID 


of  these  projects  should  be  completed  within  the  next  two  years.  This  means 
that  the  present  period  of  say  three  years  will  see  nearly  70  per  cent  as  much 
land  reclaimed  and  put  under  cultivation  as  the  entire  period  preceding  since 
the  settlement  of  the  valley.  In  addition  to  this,  it  seems  certain  that  work  will 
be  begun  immediately  upon  two  more  large  projects,  one  in  Sutler  Basin  and  one 
in  Yolo  Basin,  aggregating  another  100,000  acres.  If  this  be  true,  the  present 
five-year  period  will  more  than  double  the  total  area  of  reclaimed  land. 

Future  of  Reclamation  Work  in  the  Sacramento  Valley 

Most  of  the  projects  under  way,  or  proposed  for  immediate  construction, 
are  relatively  large.  Economical  considerations  make  it  more  profitable  to  re- 
claim a  large  body  of  land  than  a  small  one.  The  recent  organization  of  the 
State  Reclamation  Board  and  the  comprehensive  plan  of  the  California  Debris 
Commission  insure  future  reclamation,  following  an  orderly  and  legitimate  plan, 
best  adapted  to  the  ultimate  development  of  the  vast  resources  of  this  region. 
The  large  reclamation  districts  are  employing  the  best  engineering  and  executive 
talent  available,  and  under  a  broad  and  far-reaching  financial  policy  are  insisting 
upon  the  most  thorough  and  substantial  construction  work.  The  disastrous  mis- 
takes of  the  past  are  not  being  repeated.  The  reclaimed  lands  are  being  pro- 
vided with  transportation  facilities  and  are  being  rapidly  settled  and  put  under 
intensive  cultivation. 

The  work  of  reclaiming  the  balance  of  the  rich  swamp  lands  is  proceeding 
so  rapidly  and  the  future  is  so  full  of  promise  that  the  next  decade  should  see 
practically  all  of  this  land  under  cultivation.  Too  much  credit  cannot  be  given 
to  the  men  behind  the  great  projects  now  nearing  completion,  who,  in  the  face 
of  previous  disasters,  have  staked  vast  fortunes  on  the  transformation  into  an 
empire,  of  a  wilderness  of  tules. 

Respectfully  submitted, 

HAVILAND  &  TIBBETTS. 

West  Sacramento,  Cal., 

November, 

Nineteen  Hundred  and  Twelve. 


28 


E  x  / 


Plate  No.  1 
Map  Showing  Levee  System  of  Mississippi  River 

Traced  from  Engineering  News 
Havilancl  &  Tibbetts,  Engineers,  San  Francisco 


29 


f)Standard  Cross  Section  of  Mississippi  River  Comm. 


Levee  Cross  Section  of  Upper  Yazoo  Levee  District". 


3Pabney  Com. 8c  California  Debris  com. 
for  .Sacramento  River 


r—?o 


Consolidated  of  Calif. 
Reel. Pi st.  No. 1 000 


^v      Borrow  P/f- 


\*.w.iw.»'»s  (5)  Reclamation pjst  108  Adopted  Plan  for  BacK  Levees 


i  for  upper  -Secfhrt      | 


^^ 


(6)  We st  Sacramento  Co.  River  Levee.  Reel".  D  1st.  rto.900 

/(J.          riaviland  fcTibbelb  Engrs. 


'  WWest   Sacramento   Co.  BacK  Levee  Reel.  Pist.  Ho. 900 

-i- 


^rTJL—^gjgeg,, 


(S)  Hefherlands    Farms  Co.  Proposed  BacK  Levee  in  Yolo  Basin 

Pozfer 


Plate  No.  2 

Standard  Levee  Cross  Sections  Used  in  Mississippi  and  Sacramento  River  Valleys 
Haviland  &  Tibbetts,  Engineers,  San  Francisco 


30 


Plate  No.  3 

Showing  Method  of  Protection  from  Sloughing 

Copied  from  Engineering  News,  Article  by  Arthur  Hider 

Hariland  &  Tibbetts,  Engineers,  San  Francisco 


31 


raised  by 

earth 
embankment" 


on  -frorrf-  s/of>e 


Earth  backing   fatten 
from  rears/of^. 


Sect-,  no.  2 


Sac/is  of  fforff?    filled     from 
f 


TV//   -/aken  rrom 
e. 


Sect/^oS 


Plate  No.  4 

Methods  Used  to  Prevent  Overtopping  of  Levees 
Haviland  &  Tibbetts,  Engineers,  San  Francisco 


32 


'      '        ,.        -          i   4+4     a       ,  ^       J       t 

'.,::>',    '.'.'{;'..:  :'•;. 


Section 


Farfh  or  sasrot  f///etf  sacks 


SACK  P/aorecT/on 


/%/  offu/es,  brt/s/i  or  straw 

tie  (of  by  cfi/c/ren  >v//-emes/> 


'on  tto2         BRUSH  PROTECTION  HELD  in  PLACE 

By  STAKES 


2''?' 5 fakes  or w///ow po/es 


Section  fio.3      BUKLAP  PBOTEGTIOM  HELD  IH  PLACE 

BY 


-  ^'«4'@  4'ac 
" 


Section  No.  4        /" 


Bo  A  B  ps  SP/KEO  TO  L/GHT  STAKES 

Sa/es  of/?ay,  j/ra>  x  e/c  s/aAect  fa  /evee 


Section  fio.  5          PROTECT /on  BY  BflL  fs  OF  HAY  oe 


Plate  No.  5 

Methods  of  Protecting  Levees  Against  Wave  Wash 
Haviland  &  Tibbetts,  Engineers,  San  Francisco 


33 


Originated  by  Byron  Kilgour  of  the 

Publicity  Department  of  the  West  Sacramento  Company 
Designed  by  the  Booklet  Department  of  the 

Cooper  Advertising  Company 

Printed  by  Taylor,  Nash  &  Taylor 

San  Francisco 


CALIFORNIA  LIBEAEY, 


"IZSBSKS 


Makers 


I   Syracuse, N.  V. 


261099. 


I 


• 


\ > 


